Environmental diseases in sheep farming: Challenges and sustainable solutions

Summary 

Sheep husbandry is seriously threatened by environmental diseases, jeopardizing farm sustainability, production, and animal health. Extreme weather events, pollution, infectious illnesses, parasite infestations, climate change, and inadequate management techniques are some of the major obstacles. Integrated approaches such as better disease control, climatic adaptability, sustainable grazing, technology integration, and more veterinary-farmer cooperation are needed to address these problems. In order to provide practical answers for resilient and sustainable sheep husbandry, this page summarizes recent studies.

Introduction: How environmental diseases threaten sheep farming 

In many areas, sheep farming contributes to economic stability, rural livelihoods, and food security, making it an essential part of global agriculture (Tsiokos et al., 2024). However, environmental diseases—pathological illnesses made worse by ecological factors such as pollution, parasites, climate, and management practices—pose a growing challenge to the industry (Zenda and Malan, 2024)). These illnesses threaten farm sustainability and environmental balance long-term and compromise animal health and productivity (Iryna et al., 2025).

Disease risks have increased due to the intensification of sheep production, land-use changes, and climate change (Mohamed-Brahmi et al., 2024). For example, extreme weather events reduce pasture quality and increase stress-induced illnesses, while rising temperatures and unpredictable rainfall patterns change the life cycles of parasites (Boyd-Weetman et al., 2024; Mohammad et al., 2024). Furthermore, infectious diseases including foot rot, internal parasites, and zoonotic infections are made easier to spread by inadequate waste management and biosecurity flaws (Ridler, 2008; Singh et al., 2024).

Despite these obstacles, many sheep producers lack the means and expertise necessary to put into practice efficient disease prevention strategies (Boyd-Weetman et al., 2024). When available, veterinary services frequently face challenges with outreach and farmer engagement (Crawford et al., 2024). Additionally, if environmental circumstances change, traditional farming methods might no longer be feasible, requiring technology advancements and adaptive tactics (Arshad et al., 2024).

This article examines the key environmental diseases affecting sheep farming, their underlying causes, and evidence-based solutions to mitigate their impact. By integrating findings from recent studies, we highlight sustainable management practices, technological advancements, and policy recommendations to enhance sheep health, farm productivity, and ecological resilience .

Key environmental challenges in sheep farming

Several environmental factors contribute to disease prevalence and overall challenges in sheep farming:

Climate change and feed quality: The silent enemy of sheep health

Climate change poses considerable problems to agricultural systems. particularly by influencing feed availability, quality, and livestock health (Mohamed-Brahmi et al., 2024). Changes in rainfall and water availability reduce pasture productivity and nutritional quality (Escarcha et al., 2018; Mohamed-Brahmi et al., 2024; Van Den Bossche and Coetzer, 2008). In the same context, Van Den Bossche and Coetzer (2008) and Escarcha et al. (2018) noted that droughts and floods exacerbate the situation by reducing pasture growth and decreasing water supply. 

In addition to water scarcity, rising temperatures directly affect forage crops. Studies by Tamboli et al. (2023) and Mehta et al. (2023) demonstrate that heat stress increases lignification in plants, making them tougher and less digestible, thereby diminishing their nutritional value (Gadzama et al., 2016). This decline in forage quality leads to micronutrient imbalances in livestock, compromising their immune function and overall productivity (Sujatha et al., 2018). Furthermore, warmer and more humid conditions promote mycotoxin contamination in feed, introducing additional health risks (Labanca et al., 2019).

These climatic pressures force farmers in vulnerable regions, such as semi-arid zones, to adapt their management strategies—including adjustments in lambing schedules and supplemental feeding—to mitigate the adverse effects on livestock (Mohamed-Brahmi et al., 2024).

Parasitic and infectious diseases 

Parasitic and infectious diseases pose significant challenges to sheep production, affecting animal health, farm productivity, and economic viability. Effective parasite management remains a critical yet underutilized aspect of sheep farming, with many producers lacking confidence in their knowledge. A study in Southern New South Wales, Australia, found that only 30% of sheep producers felt well informed about parasite control, compared to 50% of veterinarians in the same region (Boyd-Weetman et al., 2024). This knowledge gap can lead to ineffective control measures, increasing disease incidence and economic losses.

The intensification of pastoral farming has further amplified disease risks, with high stocking densities and suboptimal husbandry practices contributing to outbreaks of infectious diseases such as abortion, salmonellosis, and respiratory infections  (Lacasta et al., 2019). Economically, these diseases reduce productivity, increase treatment costs, and threaten the sustainability of livestock farming particularly in tropical regions where agriculture is a cornerstone of rural economies (Sejian et al., 2022; Sujatha et al., 2018). Emerging challenges, including drug-resistant parasites and the spread of vector-borne diseases, further complicate disease management (Van Den Bossche & Coetzer, 2008; Knapp-Lawitzke, 2017).

Environmental conditions also play a crucial role in disease occurrence and transmission. Poor ventilation, overcrowding, and temperature fluctuations exacerbate respiratory diseases, leading to higher lamb mortality and reduced productivity in adult sheep (Ridler, 2008). Viral infections, such as Contagious Ecthyma (CE), cause additional economic losses through decreased production, mortality, and treatment expenses  (Cecco et al., 2023). CE, caused by a parapoxvirus, manifests as scabby skin lesions but can be managed through proper nutrition, hygiene, and vaccination (Lawan et al., 2021).

The impact of pollution and extreme weather on sheep productivity

Environmental pollution, including water and air pollution, poses a challenge to livestock health  (Prokisch et al., 2023). Polluted environments can lead to various health issues and reduce the overall productivity of sheep farms.

Extreme weather stress 

(Mohammad et al. (2024) reported that farming communities face substantial economic losses due to increasingly frequent extreme weather events. Saline water intrusion, crop damage from heavy rainfall, and flooding threaten agricultural enterprises, including sheep farming, by degrading pastures, reducing feed availability, and increasing disease risks (Mohammad et al., 2024). Heat stress is among the most severe consequences of climate change, which directly and immediately affects livestock productivity.

Elevated temperatures significantly reduce feed intake in animals, leading to substantial declines in growth, milk production, and overall health (Sejian et al., 2022). In dairy cattle, extreme heat can slash milk yields by nearly half, while sheep and other livestock experience impaired weight gain and reproductive efficiency (Sejian et al., 2022). Heat stress disrupts hormonal balance and embryonic development, resulting in lower conception rates, infertility, and higher rates of pregnancy loss (Sedai et al., 2025). Additionally, prolonged heat exposure weakens immune function, making animals more vulnerable to infections and parasitic diseases (Bagath et al., 2019).

Farm management practices and disease spread

Poor waste management and sanitation practices can spread diseases and environmental contamination, further exacerbating health risks, according to Singh et al. (2024).

Solutions and sustainable development

Addressing environmental illnesses in sheep farming necessitates a multidimensional approach incorporating diverse solutions and sustainable methods.

Improved disease management

Implementing effective disease control measures is crucial, including proper quarantine protocols, on-farm disease management strategies, enhanced biosecurity practices, and appropriate vaccine use. To ensure the successful adoption of these measures, targeted knowledge dissemination and training programs for sheep farmers are essential (Boyd-Weetman et al., 2024). Danmaigoro et al. (2024) and Sejian et al. (2015), on the other hand, stressed the importance of effective health management, such as illness surveillance and vaccination, as well as early warning systems for harsh weather.

Adaptation to Climate Change

Adaptation strategies to climate change include selecting drought-resistant forages, optimizing lambing periods, and improving feed management efficiency. Additionally, prioritizing animals with greater resilience to food and water scarcity—such as indigenous breeds—can further enhance climate adaptability (Mohamed-Brahmi et al., 2024). In Addition to that, Blanco-Penedo et al. (2020) and Singh et al. (2022) stressed the importance of modified housing designs to provide shelter from extreme heat and weather.

Sustainable feeding and grazing systems

Changing feeding strategies is as important. Fushai et al. (2025) called for the use of climate-friendly feed resources such as drought-tolerant grains (sorghum, millet), native legumes (cowpea), and browsing trees (Vachellia). Sujatha et al. (2018), Tamboli et al. (2023), and Rathod et al. (2025) suggested growing resilient forages and adding feed additives (antioxidants, probiotics) to improve thermal resilience and gut health.

Designing grazing systems that enhance grassland health can improve the overall environmental performance of sheep farming  (Pereira et al., 2023). Managing stocking rates and implementing mixed-livestock farming can lead to more sustainable and profitable systems  (Pereira et al., 2023).

Supplementing sheep diets with high-quality concentrates during periods of nutritional stress can help maintain their health and productivity  (Mohamed-Brahmi et al., 2024). Precision nutrition, using digital tools to determine the exact nutritional requirements of individual sheep, can further improve health and productivity  (Arshad et al., 2024).

Water management 

According to Mohamed-Brahmi et al. (2024), ensuring access to clean and reliable water sources is critical, which may require investment in water harvesting and storage technologies.

Reducing environmental impact

Minimizing the environmental impact of sheep farming involves optimizing resource use, reducing carbon emissions, and adopting eco-friendly innovations (Iryna et al., 2025). Proper management of manure and manure as fertilizers can help close nutrient cycles and minimize pollution  (Bryukhanov et al., 2021). The integration of digitalization and artificial intelligence (AI) has marked the onset of a new era of efficient sheep farming in multiple aspects, ranging from the general well-being of sheep to advanced web-based management applications  (Arshad et al., 2024).

Farmer perceptions and veterinary services

Understanding the perceptions of sheep farmers and district veterinarians towards sheep disease management is vital for effective intervention  (Boyd-Weetman et al., 2024). Enhancing the availability, accessibility, and use of veterinary services can significantly improve sheep health management  (Boyd-Weetman et al., 2024). Building trusting relationships between farmers and vets and ensuring vets have knowledge about sheep diseases and husbandry are essential  (Crawford et al., 2024).

Policy and farmer empowerment

Finally, developing resilience needs a determined effort outside the farm gate. Danmaigoro et al. (2024) and Ramana (2022) contended that supportive policies, such as subsidies for climate-smart inputs, insurance schemes, and incentives for sustainable activities, are critical. As previously stated, capacity building, such as teaching farmers on how to adopt these adaptations and conducting ongoing research into robust breeds and creative feeding solutions, is critical for long-term sustainability (Ramana, 2022; Neto et al., 2024).

The role of technology

The livestock industry is undergoing a significant transformation through the adoption of intelligent technologies, such as real-time monitoring, machine learning (ML), and the Internet of Things (IoT), to improve productivity, animal welfare, and sustainability while addressing key industry challenges (Vlaicu et al., 2024).

How digital tools and technology are reshaping sheep farming

An integrated approach to disease prevention and control is essential, encompassing on-farm management practices—such as optimal nutrition, proper housing, sanitation, record-keeping, and vaccination—as well as external interventions by governments, NGOs, and farmer cooperatives, including public awareness campaigns, border controls, isolation of infected animals, and herd monitoring (Lawan et al., 2021). Supportive government policies and accessible animal health services further strengthen these efforts (Lawan et al., 2021). By implementing such comprehensive strategies, the sheep farming sector can improve sustainability, animal welfare, and long-term productivity (Aouina et al., 2025).

Conclusion

Environmental diseases pose significant challenges to sheep health, necessitating proactive and integrated adaptation strategies. Combining traditional management practices with modern technologies and a comprehensive understanding of disease ecology is essential for ensuring the resilience and sustainability of sheep production systems in a changing climate. Addressing these challenges requires collaboration between scientists, policymakers, and sheep producers to improve mitigation implementation.

References 

1. Antonik, I., Danchuk, O. & Sadullaev, S. (2025). Global environmental challenges in livestock Farming: Solutions and sustainable development. BIO Web of Conferences, 151, 02012. 
2. Aouina, K., Nabi, M., Hadj Omar, K., Kebbal, S., Khelifi Touhami, N. A., & Ouchene, N. (2025). Characterizing sheep farming systems to improve sustainability approaches and enhance policy implementation. Tropical Animal Health and Production, 57(4). 
3. Arshad, M. F., Burrai, G. P., Varcasia, A., Sini, M. F., Ahmed, F., Lai, G., Polinas, M., Antuofermo, E., Tamponi, C., Cocco, R., Corda, A., & Parpaglia, M. L. P. (2024). The groundbreaking impact of digitalization and artificial intelligence on sheep farming. Research in Veterinary Science, 170, 105197. 
4. Bagath, M., Krishnan, G., Devaraj, C., Rashamol, V. P., Pragna, P., Lees, A. M., & Sejian, V. (2019). The impact of heat stress on the immune system in dairy cattle: A review. Research in Veterinary Science, 126, 94-102. 
5. Boyd-Weetman, J., Alam, L., Dhungyel, O., & Muir, W. I. (2024). Perceptions of Sheep Farmers and District Veterinarians towards Sheep Disease Management in New South Wales, Australia. Animals, 14(8), 1249. 
6. Bryukhanov, A. Yu., Popov, V. D., Vasilev, E. V., Shalavina, E. V., & Uvarov, R. A. (2021). Analysis and Solutions to Environmental Problems in Livestock Farming. Agricultural Machinery and Technologies, 15(4), 48 – 55. 
7. Cecco, B. S. de, Santos, I. R. dos, Molossi, F. A., Canal, C. W., Barros, C. S. L. de, Driemeier, D., Sonne, L., & Pavarini, S. P. (2023). Viral diseases of sheep in Brazil: a review and current status. Ciência Rural, 53(8). 
8. Crawford, P. E., Hamer, K., Lovatt, F., Behnke, M. C., & Robinson, P. A. (2024). Antibiotic use in the Northern Irish sheep flock: What lessons can be learnt from medicine records and farmer attitudes to improve stewardship of these essential medicines? Preventive Veterinary Medicine, 226, 106169. 
9. Danmaigoro, A., Muhammad, M. A., Abubakar, K., Magiri, R. B., Bakare, A. G., & Iji, P. A. (2024). Morphological and physiological features in small ruminants: An adaptation strategy for survival under changing climatic conditions. International Journal of Biometeorology, 68(8), 1497-1505.
10. Escarcha, J. F., Lassa, J. A., Palacpac, E. P., & Zander, K. K. (2018). Understanding climate change impacts on water buffalo production through farmers’ perceptions. Climate Risk Management, 20, 50-63. 
11. Fushai, F., Chitura, T., & Oke, O. E. (2025). Climate-smart livestock nutrition in semi-arid Southern African agricultural systems. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 12, art. no. 1507152. 
12. Gadzama, I. U., Mohammed, I. D., Yashim, S. M., Abdu, S. B., & Ereke, S. O. (2016). Quality assessment of Dusa-rice bran multi-nutrient block (DRMB) in a semi-arid environment of north east Nigeria. Journal of Animal Production Research, 28(1), 33-48.
13. Knapp-Lawitzke, F. (2017). Does climate change increase problems with drug-resistant gastrointestinal cattle parasites in Germany? [Bringt der Klimawandel auch größere Probleme durch resistente Weideparasiten für deutsche Rinderhalter mit sich?]. Tierärztliche Umschau, 72(4), 109-113. Retrieved from 
14. Labanca, F., Raimondi, A., Fontanelli, M., Pisuttu, C., Rallo, G., Galli, F., & Pellegrini, E. (2019). The effects of climate change on livestock production systems: The cases of mycotoxins in animal feed and animal heat stress. Agrochimica, 2019, 99-106.
15. Lacasta, D., González, J. M., Navarro, T., Saura, F., Acín, C., & Vasileiou, N. G. C. (2019). Significance of respiratory diseases in the health management of sheep. Small Ruminant Research, 181, 99 – 102.
16. Lawan, Z., Bala, J. A., Bukar, A. M., Balakrishnan, K. N., Mangga, H. K., Abdullah, F. F. J., Noordin, M. M., & Mohd-Azmi, M. L. (2021). Contagious ecthyma: how serious is the disease worldwide? Animal Health Research Reviews, 22(1), 40 – 55. 
17. Mehta, B. K., Meena, S. K., Dikshit, N., Shashikumara, P., Kumar, A., Kumar, P., Singh, M., Gupta, G., & Ahmed, S. (2023). Forage genetic resources and scope for allele mining of abiotic stress tolerance. In Molecular Interventions for Developing Climate-Smart Crops: A Forage Perspective (pp. 35-56). 
18. Mohamed-Brahmi, A., Ameur, M., Mekki, I., Tenza-Peral, A., Nasraoui, M., Yagoubi, Y., Smeti, S., Ben Saïd, S., Atti, N., Lobón, S., & Mahouachi, M. (2024). Analysis of Management Practices and Breeders’ Perceptions of Climate Change’s Impact to Enhance the Resilience of Sheep Production Systems: A Case Study in the Tunisian Semi-Arid Zone. Animals, 14(6), 885. 
19. Mohammad, A., Ahmad, M. M., Feroze, S. M., Dutta, T. K., Bhakat, C., & Chatterjee, A. (2024). Coping Strategies of the Farming Communities in the Indian Sundarbans Region to Adapt with Frequent Extreme Weather Events. Human Ecology, 52(3), 591 – 605. 
20. Neto, R. P., Furtado, A. J., da Silva, G. V., Lobo, A. A. G., Abdalla Filho, A. L., Brunetti, H. B., ... & Rodrigues, P. H. M. (2024). Forage accumulation and nutritive value in extensive, intensive, and integrated pasture-based beef cattle production systems. Crop and Pasture Science, 75(5).
21. Pereira, F. C., Maxwell, T. M. R., Smith, C. M. S., Charters, S., Mazzetto, A. M., & Gregorini, P. (2023). Designing grazing systems that enhance the health of New Zealand high-country grasslands. Cleaner Environmental Systems, 11, 100151. 
22. Prokisch, J., Sári, D., Muthu, A., Nagy, A., El-Ramady, H., Abdalla, N., & Dobránszki, J. (2023). Biotechnology of Nanofiber in Water, Energy, and Food Sectors. Agronomy, 13(11), 2734. 
23. Ramana, D. B. V. (2022). Livestock based production systems for climate adaptation in dryland areas. In Climate Change Adaptations in Dryland Agriculture in Semi-Arid Areas (pp. 127-141). 
24. Rathod, A. K., Somagond, Y. M., Lokesha, E., Kumar, A., Kanaka, K. K., Nikhil, K. C., Jadhav, S. E., & Aderao, G. N. (2025). Role of micronutrients in production and reproduction of farm animals under climate change scenario. Tropical Animal Health and Production, 57(2), art. no. 31. 
25. Ridler, A. (2008). Disease threats to sheep associated with intensification of pastoral farming. New Zealand Veterinary Journal, 56(6), 270 – 273. 
26. Sejian, V., Silpa, M. V., Devaraj, C., Trivedi, S., Vadhana, P. E., Ruban, W., Suganthi, R. U., Manimaran, A., Maurya, V. P., & Bhatta, R. (2022). Impact of climate change on animal production and welfare. In Climate Change and Livestock Production: Recent Advances and Future Perspectives (pp. 3-14). 
27. Singh, D., Tembhare, M., Dikshit, A. K., Dangi, M. B., & Kumar, S. (2024). Technical and operational challenges in setting up a decentralized biogas plant: Opportunities and future perspective toward sustainable nation. Process Safety and Environmental Protection, 185, 392 – 407. 
28. Sujatha, T., Kannan, A., Jeyakumar, S., Kundu, A., Velmurugan, A., Sunder, J., Swarnam, T. P., & De, A. K. (2018). Livestock and people - the intimate relation under threat. In Biodiversity and Climate Change Adaptation in Tropical Islands (pp. 433-457). 
29. Tamboli, P., Chaurasiya, A. K., Upadhyay, D., & Kumar, A. (2023). Climate change impact on forage characteristics: An appraisal for livestock production. In Molecular Interventions for Developing Climate-Smart Crops: A Forage Perspective (pp. 183-196). 
30. Tsiokos, D., Perucho, L., Bouzalas, I., Fança, B., Grisot, P. G., de Heredia, I. B., Ruiz, R., Carta, A., Salaris, S., Ligda, C., & Tsiligianni, Th. (2024). Insights on the health challenges of the dairy sheep farming in the Mediterranean countries of Europe. Small Ruminant Research, 238, 107332. 
31. Van Den Bossche, P., & Coetzer, J. A. W. (2008). Climate change and animal health in Africa. OIE Revue Scientifique et Technique, 27(2), 551-562. 
32. Vlaicu, P. A., Gras, M. A., Untea, A. E., Lefter, N. A., & Rotar, M. C. (2024). Advancing Livestock Technology: Intelligent Systemization for Enhanced Productivity, Welfare, and Sustainability. AgriEngineering, 6(2), 1479–1496. 
33. Wang, Y., Wang, Z., Wu, L., Li, H., Li, J., Zhu, A., Jin, Y., & Han, G. (2024). Effects of grazing and climate change on aboveground standing biomass and sheep live weight changes in the desert steppe in Inner Mongolia, China. Agricultural Systems, 217, 103916. 
34. Zenda, M., & Malan, P. J. (2024). Investigation of Challenges Faced by Small-Scale Sheep Farmers in the Northern Cape (Hantam Karoo), South Africa. South African Journal of Agricultural Extension (SAJAE), 52(1), 189–209.