Non-Conventional Feed Sources (NCFS) for Sustainable Poultry Farming

Introduction

What Are Non-Conventional Feed Resources (NCFR)?

For both animal researchers and farmers, non-conventional feed resources (NCFR) offer a practical and sustainable way to improve poultry production (Katoch et al., 2018; Edea, 2024). NCFRs are feedstuffs that are not commonly used in commercial livestock production and can be considered "new" or "emerging" feed sources (Abdou Karim & kyarimpa, 2023). These can include a variety of sources such as agro-industrial by-products, multipurpose trees and shrubs, weeds, and perennial crops (Katoch et al., 2018). The importance of utilizing NCFR stems from several factors, primarily addressing the rising costs and sustainability issues associated with traditional feed ingredients (Costa et al., 2022; Sajid et al., 2023; Patil et al., 2024). Conventional feed sources, like grains, are also staples for human consumption, leading to competition and shortages (Patel & Katole, 2023; Annate et al., 2024). By incorporating NCFR, this competition can be reduced, ensuring more stable and affordable feed supplies for poultry (Katoch et al., 2018; Sajid et al., 2023). The high costs associated with conventional poultry feed, which can account for 60-70% of total production costs, make NCFR a viable alternative for reducing the economic burden on farmers (Abdou Karim & kyarimpa, 2023; Jadhav & Pattar, 2024; Patil et al., 2024; Yaemkong et al., 2025). Moreover, NCFRs often include agro-industrial by-products that would otherwise be discarded, turning potential waste into valuable feed (Costa et al., 2022; Georganas et al., 2023; Malenica et al., 2023). Examples include yam peel, prawn head, pineapple peel, avocado pear peel, coconut chaff, fish head, and crayfish chaff (Johnson et al., 2022). Using these by-products not only reduces feed costs but also addresses environmental concerns related to waste management (Georganas et al., 2023; Patil et al., 2024; Edenakpo et al., 2025). Many NCFRs are rich in essential nutrients and bioactive compounds (Costa et al., 2022; Georganas et al., 2023; Jadhav & Pattar, 2024). For instance, Azolla is a plant resource with high biomass and protein content, containing essential amino acids, minerals, and vitamins (Jadhav & Pattar, 2024). Similarly, insect meals offer a protein-rich alternative with excellent amino acid profiles (Abdou Karim & kyarimpa, 2023; Sajid et al., 2023). These nutrients can improve poultry health and productivity, while bioactive compounds can enhance the antioxidant status and overall well-being of the birds (Georganas et al., 2023; Sajid et al., 2023).

This article will look into the different key non-conventional feed sources of two types:

1. Protein Based sources
2. Energy-based sources.

Protein and Energy feed ingredients make up the largest portion of poultry production costs, which absolutely makes finding alternative feed ingredients worthwhile. This is very important in helping to cut the cost of raising chickens, which consequently increases farmers' profits, which is the ultimate goal of any commercial poultry farmer. Finally, the article will discuss the limitations that hinder the utilization of non-conventional feed sources and how some of the limitations can be addressed.

Non-Conventional Protein Sources

Why Protein Costs Are High in Poultry Farming

Protein feed ingredients are expensive due to several converging factors, including high demand, competition with human consumption, and environmental impacts, making well-researched and utilized non-conventional sources a potentially superior alternative (Alagawany et al., 2022; Arshad et al., 2022; Abdoun et al., 2023). The demand for animal protein is steadily increasing due to a rising global population, urbanization, and higher incomes in developing countries (Abdelnour et al., 2018; Costa et al., 2022; Sajid et al., 2023; Edenakpo et al., 2025). Soybean production is linked to deforestation, soil erosion, and high pesticide use, while over-fishing and environmental pollution limit fish meal (Khan, 2018; Sajid et al., 2023). These issues drive up costs and create economic instability for poultry farmers (Khan, 2018). Non-conventional feed resources (NCFRs) can reduce the competition between humans and animals for food and mitigate these challenges (Katoch et al., 2018). Non-conventional feed sources often have lower production costs, are locally available, and can be more environmentally sustainable (Abreha et al., 2019; Hadiani & Kustyorini, 2023). However, thorough research is crucial to determine the nutritional value, optimal inclusion rates, and processing methods needed to minimize anti-nutritional factors and maximize their benefits in poultry diets (Georganas et al., 2023; Edea, 2024). 

Insect Meals: A Sustainable Protein Alternative

Insect meal stands out as a promising animal-based protein source. Various insects, such as black soldier flies, mealworms, and house crickets, can be processed into insect meal, offering a rich supply of essential amino acids (lysine and methionine) and key minerals (calcium, phosphorus, and zinc) (Sajid et al., 2023). Studies indicate that incorporating insect meal into poultry diets can improve growth performance and meat quality (Abdou Karim & kyarimpa, 2023; Sajid et al., 2023). Silkworm pupae (SWP) have shown positive effects on broiler growth, with research indicating that broilers fed processed SWP at 25% and 50% levels experienced improved body weight gain (BWG) and feed conversion ratio (FCR) compared to those fed raw SWP . In another study, live body weight and feed intake were higher in broilers fed a diet containing 75% SWP (Khan, 2018). Furthermore, insect meal's high digestibility enhances its value as a feed ingredient for poultry production. The nutritional value and availability of insects position them as a sustainable feed resource in poultry nutrition (Sajid et al., 2023).

Plant-Based Protein Sources for Poultry

Plant-based alternatives like Azolla offer another viable option. Azolla, an aquatic plant, boasts a high protein content and can be used as a partial substitute for traditional feeds. Research indicates that when azolla is used to replace 30% of Desi starter feed, the weight gain is comparable to that of a control group. The study also found out that azolla can effectively reduce feeding costs (Jadhav & Pattar, 2024).

Other Unconventional Protein Additives

Other unconventional feedstuffs include feather and peat concentrates. Incorporating these non-traditional additives can enhance the productive qualities of poultry (Caisîn & Cara, 2021; Larisa & Alla, 2022). Studies have demonstrated that young hens reach physiological maturity earlier, leading to increased egg weight compared to control groups. Furthermore, the taste of meat and broth is significantly improved in experimental groups fed feather and peat concentrates, indicating enhanced organoleptic properties (Larisa & Alla, 2022).

The following considerations are important when considering the utilization of non-conventional feed sources:

• Inclusion rates: The optimal inclusion rate varies depending on the specific feedstuff and the type of poultry (Sugiharto, 2021).
• Cassava pulp: Should not exceed 8% to avoid negative impacts on growth (Sugiharto et al., 2018).
• Cost: One important factor that may reduce the cost is to maintain a small distance between livestock farms and the generation sites of by-products (Georganas et al., 2023)
  

Non-Conventional Energy Sources

Several materials can serve as non-conventional energy sources in poultry feed.

Agro-Industrial By-Products as Feed

Agro-industrial by-products are prominent examples, often derived from plant sources.

• Yam tuber waste meal can replace maize in broiler diets without adverse effects. Studies have shown that including yam tuber waste meal at 22-32% in broiler diets does not negatively impact growth performance (Mbanefo Nnamdi et al., 2023).
• Corn processing by-products continues to be a palatable and easily digestible feed ingredient for poultry because it does not contain antinutritional factors (Hadiani & Kustyorini, 2023).
• Molasses, palm kernel meal, copra meal, banana peel meal, rice bran, cassava pulp and orange peels and pulp are agro-industrial by-products that can be incorporated in poultry nutrition as an alternative to conventional feedstuffs (Sugiharto et al., 2018).

Forgotten Crops as Alternative Energy Sources

Grains, such as sorghum and millet, can also be used as alternative energy sources. A review by Mnisi et al. suggests that these grains can be used for sustainable quail production (Mnisi et al., 2023).

• Sorghum can replace corn in broiler diets, influencing growth performance, shank skin pigmentation, and caecal microflora (Mnisi et al., 2023).
• Brewers' dried grain can replace maize and lead to the lowest production feed cost per kg weight gain of broilers (Georganas et al., 2023; Mnisi et al., 2023).

Other Unconventional Energy Feed Ingredients

Other non-conventional energy sources include various wastes and residues.

• Bakery waste has an energy value of 4136 kcal/kg making it a potential replacement for poultry feed energy source (Truong et al., 2019).
• Cornflakes waste can be utilised in poultry feeds due to its high metabolizable energy of 3330 kcal/kg (Truong et al., 2019).

Inclusion Rates and Processing of NCFR

The inclusion rate of these non-conventional energy sources is critical and depends on the specific material and the type of poultry.

• Cassava pulp should not exceed 8% of the diet to avoid negatively impacting the growth performance of broiler chicks (Sugiharto et al., 2018).
• High concentrations of rice bran (above 20%) can also retard growth rates in broiler chicks (Sugiharto et al., 2018).
• Including sunflower meal at a level of 8% can improve the economic efficiency index in broiler diets (Georganas et al., 2023).

Processing methods like fermentation can improve the nutritional qualities of agro-industrial waste. Fermentation lowers fiber content and increases protein content, allowing for higher inclusion rates in poultry diets.

• Fermented cassava pulp can be included in broiler diets up to 24% without adverse effects (Georganas et al., 2023).

Careful consideration must be given to factors such as feed texture, structure, and the specific needs of different poultry breeds during incorporation in feeds. It has been suggested that slower-growing chicken breeds in organic or small-scale farms may benefit more from silages in their diets (Bonos et al., 2022).

Challenges and Limitations of non-Conventional Feed Sources (NCFR)

For poultry farmers and animal scientists, several hindrances and limitations exist in utilising non-conventional feed sources (NCFS), both energy and protein-based, in poultry production. Overcoming these challenges is essential to fully harness the potential of these alternative feeds for sustainable and cost-effective poultry farming.

• One significant obstacle is the limited knowledge and awareness among poultry farmers and stakeholders regarding the potential of NCFS. Many farmers are unaware of the nutritional content and proper utilisation methods, leading to underutilisation or wastage (Edea, 2024). Therefore, increased education and awareness programs are needed to disseminate information on the benefits and appropriate uses of NCFS.
• Another key limitation is the lack of processing and preservation techniques for NCFS. Many of these resources require specific treatments to enhance their nutritional value and reduce anti-nutritional factors (Edea, 2024). Without proper processing, the nutritional benefits may not be fully realised, or the presence of harmful compounds may negatively impact poultry health. Research into cost-effective and practical processing methods is necessary to improve the usability of NCFS.
• Technical aspects also pose challenges. In Uganda, market waste and by-products from food processing are underutilized due to various technical reasons, such as scattered availability, seasonality, and unreliable supply. Processing market waste can be difficult, costly, and problematic, and there is often a lack of managerial skills and capital resources for purchasing and operating suitable technology. Sustainable conversion of market waste into poultry feed is possible using bioprocessing techniques (Kisuule et al., 2024).

The presence of anti-nutritional factors (ANFs) is a major concern with many NCFS. These compounds can interfere with nutrient digestion and absorption, reducing the overall nutritional value of the feed.

• Insects may contain protease inhibitors, phytic acids, oxalates, tannins, lectins, and alkaloids. Selecting insect species with lower levels of ANFs or applying appropriate processing techniques to reduce their activity is advisable (Sajid et al., 2023).
• Cassava pulp contains cyanogenic compounds, which can be toxic if not properly processed. Fermentation, ensiling, and drying can reduce cyanide levels.
• Sorghum may contain high levels of tannins, which can reduce protein digestibility. Tannins in sorghum can be mitigated through processing methods such as soaking, dehulling, or using tannin-deactivating feed additives (Mnisi et al., 2023).

Inclusion rates can also be a factor that limits the utilisation of these non-conventional feed sources. High concentrations of certain NCFS can have adverse effects on poultry performance. For example;

• Cassava pulp should not exceed 8% of the diet to avoid negatively impacting growth performance in broiler chicks (Sugiharto et al., 2018).
• Rice bran at concentrations above 20% can retard growth rates in broiler chicks (Sugiharto et al., 2018).

The palatability and acceptance of NCFS by poultry can also be a limiting factor. Some materials may have an undesirable taste or texture, leading to reduced feed intake. Improving the palatability of NCFS through processing or mixing with more palatable feeds can enhance their acceptance by poultry.

• Economic constraints and marketability also play a crucial role. The costs of some NCFS may not be competitive, and there may be a lack of marketability for processed feeds from waste. Ensuring that the use of NCFS is economically viable and that there is a market for the resulting poultry products is essential for their widespread adoption (Kisuule et al., 2024).
• Regulatory frameworks and guidelines for the use of some NCFS, such as insects, are lacking, raising concerns regarding food safety and animal health. Establishing clear regulatory standards and guidelines can promote the safe and responsible use of these alternative feed resources (Abdou Karim & kyarimpa, 2023).

Conclusion

Non-conventional feed sources offer a promising route to sustainable poultry production by reducing feed costs and reliance on traditional ingredients. Overcoming limitations, such as a lack of awareness, processing issues, anti-nutritional factors, and regulatory gaps, through education, research, and appropriate processing techniques is crucial. Careful attention to inclusion rates, palatability, and economic viability will further facilitate their successful adoption.

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