Meat handling practices and public health risks in Nigerian and developing country abattoirs.

Introduction

Africa produced about 22 million tonnes of meat in 2022, with South Africa, Egypt, Nigeria, Morocco, and Sudan accounting for almost 50% of the total output on the continent (Mattiello et al., 2018; Adesola et al., 2024). Despite this growing production, meat processing, slaughter practices, and hygiene standards across much of sub-Saharan Africa remain inadequate, increasing risks to public health, animal welfare, and meat quality.

Across developing countries, slaughter processes generally follow similar steps-stunning, skinning, evisceration, bleeding, hanging, washing, cutting, and deboning yet these stages are also the main points where contamination occurs (Bersisa et al., 2019). Numerous studies have shown that poor handling, weak infrastructure, and unhygienic environments in abattoirs expose meat to pathogens that threaten consumer safety and reduce product value (Ahouandjnou et al., 2015; Kyayesimira et al., 2020; Mpundu et al., 2019).

Meat handling and public health risks

Unhygienic conditions in Nigerian abattoirs

In most Nigerian abattoirs, the surrounding environment is frequently waterlogged as a result of poor drainage systems, with wastewater from carcass dressing and lairage washings accumulating and spreading across the land (Akinro et al., 2009; Lawan et al., 2012). Meat production and processing often fall short of international standards. Many abattoirs operate in unsanitary open environments infested with flies and maggots, where meat is handled on contaminated tables and weighed with faulty scales.

Transportation is typically done using dirty wheelbarrows and dilapidated vehicles, posing serious health risks to consumers. Additionally, proper waste management systems are largely absent. These poor practices have raised significant public health concerns among Nigerians who consume large quantities of meat from such facilities.

Unsafe meat handling and environmental contamination

In Nigeria and other developing countries, poor compliance with safe meat processing and handling practices is widespread. It is common for people to consume beef with the skin, which is prepared through singeing, often done using unsafe methods such as kerosene (Babayemi and Bamikole, 2010).

Many Nigerian abattoirs are located near surface water bodies to ensure a steady water supply for animal processing and to serve as a disposal point for wastewater generated from meat operations (Barros et al., 2007; Ishiaka et al., 2013). Nwanta et al. (2008) reported that many facilities suffer from poor infrastructure, inadequate water supply, absence of refrigeration, and lack of waste management systems.

Presence of zoonotic and food-borne pathogens

Several zoonotic pathogens have been detected in slaughtered animals, including Mycobacterium tuberculosis, M. bovis, Leptospira spp., Campylobacter spp., Yersinia spp., Clostridia spp., and Listeria (Adesemoye et al., 2006; Opara et al., 2006). Other infectious agents such as E. coli O157, Salmonella, Brucella abortus, B. melitensis, and B. suis have also been found (Tekki et al., 2012; Cadmus and Adesokan, 2009; Kaltungo, 2018a, 2018b).

A recent U.S. survey found that 8% of culled dairy cows arrived at slaughter with full udders, posing both welfare concerns and contamination risks from milk (Grandin, 2020; Harris et al., 2018). In Ghana, inadequate transport conditions and abusive handling cause a high incidence of DFD (dark, firm, dry) meat in cattle (Frimpong et al., 2014).

Animal welfare and abattoir management

Currently, there is limited information on animal handling and welfare issues that could support the development of animal welfare policies in Nigeria (Alimi et al., 2023). In European abattoirs, bulls are unloaded into single-file races to minimize aggression, and each animal is confined between sliding gates to prevent fighting—a factor linked to DFD beef (Grandin, 2020).

Alimi et al. (2023) also highlighted major shortcomings in Nigerian abattoirs, including poor infrastructure, inadequate preservation facilities, substandard handling, and lack of proper slaughter records. Most meat handlers lack training in food and meat hygiene (Adesokan et al., 2015).

Training gaps and hygiene practices

Unhygienic carcass dressing on slaughter floors often leads to contamination, with pathogenic microorganisms isolated from both meat and facilities (Ojo et al., 2009). Poor personal hygiene further increases risk, as workers’ hands often act as vectors for food-borne diseases.

In Ethiopia, 61.5% of abattoir workers in Mekelle city had never received food hygiene training (Zakpaa et al., 2009; Mekonnen et al., 2013). Similarly, in Kenya, authorities emphasize the importance of training meat handlers in personal hygiene as a critical measure for consumer safety (Eribo and Jay, 1985; Government of Kenya, 2012).

In Nigeria, unsafe abattoir practices have prevented the country’s meat from being approved for export (Herenda et al., 1994; Holds, 2007). This reflects a lack of awareness and underscores the need for improved hygiene and inspection measures.

Zoonotic diseases and biosecurity challenges

Zoonotic pathogens represent about half of Africa’s public health threats, with zoonotic epidemics rising by 63% between 2012 and 2022 (Nakweya, 2023). In 2022, an estimated 2.9 million cattle, buffalo, poultry, and pigs were slaughtered across the continent (Ritchie et al., 2023).

In many African countries, meat slaughtering, processing, and distribution are poorly regulated, increasing the risk of contamination and meat-borne infections, which remain a major public health concern. Proper handling, sanitation, and hygiene practices at all stages from slaughterhouse to preservation are critical to preventing such infections and minimizing economic losses. The level of hygiene observed directly influences the type and extent of microbial contamination (Jacob et al., 2010; Adesola et al., 2024). Adesola et al. (2024) emphasized the need for governments to establish more slaughterhouses, noting that several African countries, including the Democratic Republic of Congo, Niger, Libya, Djibouti, and Tunisia, currently lack such facilities despite the high number of animals slaughtered on the continent. Adugna et al. (2018) reported that in Ethiopia, slaughterhouse workers were the primary source of meat contamination during transfer from abattoirs to butcher shops, with Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus frequently detected on their hands. Frederick et al. (2020) found that in Ghana, meat sellers had adequate awareness that poor handling could contaminate meat and cause illnesses, along with a basic understanding of personal hygiene. However, they lacked sufficient training and comprehensive knowledge of safe meat handling and broader meat safety practices. Adesola et al. (2024) noted that parasites are a major cause of meat-borne diseases in humans, typically transmitted through eating raw, undercooked, or contaminated meat.

Parasites and meat-borne diseases

Parasites are major causes of meat-borne diseases in humans, transmitted through raw, undercooked, or contaminated meat (Adesola et al., 2024). Common parasites include Trichinella, Taenia, Toxoplasma, Giardia, Cryptosporidium, Fasciola, Sarcocystis, Echinococcus, and Linguatula serrata.

The prevalence of Cysticercus bovis in cattle varies across Africa, reaching 26% in Nigeria, 0.23–20% in Egypt, 6.1% in Zambia, 4.24% in Ethiopia, 0.98% in South Africa, and 0.42% in Sudan. In Sudan, about 0.3% of food handlers carried Taenia saginata. These findings highlight the need for strong biosecurity measures, including good hygiene, thorough meat inspection, and proper cooking, especially where regulatory enforcement is weak.

Infrastructure and sanitation concerns

Microbial contamination of meat in developing countries is difficult to prevent during slaughter and processing (Annan-Prah et al., 2012; Babe et al., 2018). Unhygienic facilities, poor sanitation, and inadequate handling expose carcasses to pathogens at multiple stages.

Studies have shown that meat from developing countries often contains harmful toxins and antibiotic-resistant bacteria such as Staphylococcus spp. (Babe et al., 2018; Okoli et al., 2018). Research revealed that only 48% of respondents washed their knives before processing, while none washed their hands, sterilized knives, or cleaned the abattoir (Malachi et al., 2021).

After processing, 50% washed their hands, sterilized their knives, washed the carcass, and cleaned the abattoir, whereas only 2% washed their knives (Malachi et al., 2021).Cook et al. (2017), opined that the current working conditions of western Kenya slaughterhouses are not in line with the recommendations of the Meat Control Act of Kenya. likewise, Nations like Ghana (Annan-Prah et al. 2012), Eastern D.R. Congo (Babe et al., 2018), Cameroon (Afolabi et al., 2014), Bamako, Mali (Brahima et al., 2022), as reported have similar high risks from hygiene compromise in slaughterhouses, and high levels of meat contamination and consumption.

Proper sewage and waste disposal systems are often lacking, and large amounts of animal waste—blood, bones, hides, tissues, and intestines—are scattered around abattoirs (Timothy, 2020). This creates an ideal environment for pathogens and increases contamination risks.

The importance of education and modern slaughter practices

According to Harris et al. (2018), the NBQA-2016 results showed that the cattle industry improved hide cleanliness and carcass quality, leading to greater economic returns for producers and processors. The report recommends that the beef and dairy sectors use these findings to guide research and strengthen producer education.

By improving knowledge of best production and management practices, stakeholders can reduce financial losses, enhance beef quality, and ensure safer meat for consumers.

Conclusion

Meat hygiene, slaughter practices, and handling systems in many African countries, especially Nigeria, remain below international standards, resulting in high contamination rates, welfare concerns, and public health risks. The evidence clearly links poor infrastructure, lack of training, weak regulation, and unhygienic environments to the presence of zoonotic and parasitic pathogens in abattoirs.

Improving food safety and reducing disease risks require modern slaughter facilities, strict hygiene enforcement, proper waste management, and comprehensive training for meat handlers. These measures must be supported by government investment and policy reform. Strengthening these systems is critical to protecting consumers, improving meat quality, and safeguarding public health across the continent.

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