Barley History, Plant Information, and Nutritional Value

History of Barley

Common barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) comes from the wild plant Hordeum spontaneum. Several findings from the Fertile Crescent indicate that barley was domesticated 10,000 years ago and is considered to be one of the founder crops of Old World agriculture (Badr et al., 2000). Barley cultivation can be found in several parts of the world. Some experts support that its precise origin is unknown (Harlan, 1979), while others believe it originated in the Eastern Mediterranean region (1). Generally, it dates to 5000 BCE in Egypt, 3,000 BCE in northwestern Europe, 2350 in Mesopotamia, and 1,500 BCE in China. For the Hebrews, Greeks, and Romans, barley was the main plant used for bread production during 1,500-1,600 (16th century) (2). Interestingly, barley was used as currency in ancient Mesopotamia (3).

Plant Information

Barley belongs in the top 4 of world grain production together with maize (Zea mays L.), wheat (Triticum aestivum L.), and rice (Oryza sativa L.) (Carena, 2009). More precisely, in 2017, its production reached 149 million tonnes or 330 billion pounds (4). The European Union (EU-27) is, by far, the largest barley producer, followed by Russia and Australia. The United States is the world’s seventh-largest producer of barley (5). In the U.S., 2.2 million acres or 0.89 million hectares of barley were harvested in 2020 with an average yield of 77.2 bushels/acre or 5.19 tonnes/hectare, while the total production in 2020 was 170.8 million bushels or 3.7 million tonnes (6).

Barley is cereal and belongs to the Poaceae family. It can be found under the names common barley, grain barley, and cereal barley. The plant can grow in various environmental conditions and climate ranges (temperate, subarctic, or subtropical areas). It is an annual, cool-season C3 (Vitkauskaite and Venskaityte, 2011) grass, and its height range from 2 to 4 ft or 0.6 to 1.2 m (Ball et al., 1998). Its stems are erect with alternate smooth leaves, while its nodes and internodes are hairless. Βarley seeds are produced on a spike inflorescence ¾ to 4 inches (2–10 cm) long with flower clusters in groups of three long bristles (called awns). Awns can be absent in some varieties but, when present, can reach 6 inches or 15.2 cm in length (Radford et al., 1968).

Barley cannot be distinguished from other small grains, especially before flowering. We can observe the leaf collar to distinguish it from different cereals, such as wheat, rye, or oats. In the case of barley, it will have two overlapping appendages that clasp the stem, known as auricles (Ball et al., 1998).

There are two main categories of barley, based on the arrangement of the seedheads in the spike. More precisely, when we see a head of six-rowed barley from above, we can distinguish six rows of kernels, three on each side of the rachis (seedhead stem). In the case of two-rowed barley, a kernel is developed only on the middle spikelet, while the other two spikelets are sterile. When observed from above, this type appears to have only two kernels (Carena et al., 2009).

Barley can be cultivated either in winter or in spring. Winter barley is usually sown in the fall in order to be exposed to low temperatures, and it completes its development the following spring and summer. On the other hand, spring barley doesn’t require exposure to winter temperatures and can be sown in spring. Winter types usually mature earlier than spring types. Generally, there are three main growth staging systems (Zadoks, Haun, Feekes). Barley grows through the following stages based on the Zadoks system (1)

Emergence
Tillering
Jointing
Flag leaf emergence
Booting
Head emergence
Maturity

Nutritional Value and Uses of Barley

Barley’s flavor can be considered nutlike, and its nutritional value is high. More precisely, it is rich in carbohydrates, while its protein, calcium, and phosphorus concentration is moderate. Barley also contains small amounts of vitamins of the complex B.

The nutritional value of 100 g of whole grain barley (8)

334 kcal
10.6 g protein
2.1 g total fat
60.8 g carbohydrates
14.8 g fiber
50 mg Calcium
6 mg Iron
91 mg Magnesium
380 mg Phosphorus
4 mg Potassium
0.5 mg Sodium
3.3 mg Zinc
0.3 mg Thiamin (B1)
0.1 mg Riboflavin (B2)
0.6 mg Vit. B6
50 DFE Folate

Barley can be used

For human consumption. Concerning its use for human consumption, barley is a critical ingredient in alcoholic beverages, such as beer and whisky, and non-alcoholic drinks, such as barley water and roasted barley tea. In Italy, barley is also a coffee substitute, caffè d’orzo (coffee of barley). Generally, six-row barley is more suitable for animal feed since it has a higher protein content, while two-row barley, which has a higher sugar content, is more suitable for malt production. Barley is grown in many areas of the world for cultural as well as economic reasons due to its use in malt production.
For forage. Barley is a very competitive plant that matures quickly and can be harvested for forage in approximately 58 to 65 days. Given the short growing season, barley could be planted in some environments for double cropping. Barley varieties developed for forage are generally awnless and can be harvested at a later stage of maturity (milk-soft dough stage) compared with grain varieties. Forage barley varieties can be two-row or six-row types (12).
For cover crop (9). Barley can also be used against soil erosion. This happens because winter barley develops a deep root system into the soil, protecting it from wind and rain, factors that contribute to erosion. This is one of the reasons why barley is often used as a cold-weather cover crop. It also releases nitrogen into the soil.
As ornamental. A new stabilized variegated variety of H. vulgare (billed as H. vulgare variegate) (10).

In England, it is also used as algistatic (11), while some years ago, it was used as a measurement unit (the statutory definition of an inch was three barleycorns) (Long, 1842).

References

Badr, A., Müller, K., Schäfer-Pregl, R., El Rabey, H., Effgen, S., Ibrahim, H., et al. (2000). On the origin and domestication history of barley (Hordeum vulgare). Mol. Biol. Evol. 17, 499–510. doi: 10.1093/oxfordjournals.molbev.a026330
Ball, D.M., Hoveland, C.S. and Lacefield, G.D. (1998). Southern forages. 2nd ed. Potash and Phosphate Inst. and Foundation for Agronomic Research, Norcross, GA.
Carena, M.J. (2009). Handbook of plant breeding: cereals. 1st ed. Springer, New York.
Harlan, J.R. (1979). On the origin of barley. In: Barley: origin, botany, culture, winter hardiness, genetics utilization, pests. USDA Agriculture Handbook 338. Washington, DC.
Long, G. (1842). “The Penny Cyclopædia of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge. Vol. 26, Ungulata – Wales”. The Penny Cyclopædia of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge. C. Knight. p. 436.
Radford, A.E., Ahles H. F., and Bell, C. R. (1968). Manual of the vascular flora of the Carolinas. Univ. of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill.
Vitkauskaite, G., Venskaityte, L. (2011) Differences between C3 (Hordeum vulgare L.) and C4 (Panicum miliaceum L.) plants with respect to their resistance to water deficit. Žemdirbystė=Agriculture,vol.98,No.4,p.349‒356.

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